Chapter 17: The Delhi Sultanate

1. Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate emerged after the expansion of Turkish political power in northern India following the victories of Muhammad Ghori in the late 12th century.

After Muhammad Ghori died in 1206 CE, his Indian territories came under the control of his former military commanders. Among them, Qutbuddin Aibak established an independent political authority in northern India.

2. The Five Dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate

3. The Mamluk or Slave Dynasty

The first ruling dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate is commonly called the Slave Dynasty or Mamluk Dynasty.

The term Mamluk refers to military slaves who could rise to positions of great political and military authority.

Important rulers of this dynasty included:

• Qutbuddin Aibak
• Iltutmish
• Razia Sultan
• Nasiruddin Mahmud
• Ghiyasuddin Balban

4. Qutbuddin Aibak

Qutbuddin Aibak was originally a military slave who rose under Muhammad Ghori and became one of his most trusted commanders.

After Muhammad Ghori's death in 1206 CE, Aibak established his authority in northern India.

He ruled approximately from 1206 to 1210 CE.

5. Qutbuddin Aibak as "Lakh Baksh"

Aibak was popularly known as Lakh Baksh, meaning "giver of lakhs", because of his reputation for generosity.

His reign was relatively short, and much of the administrative consolidation of the Sultanate was achieved by his successor Iltutmish.

6. Qutb Minar and Qutbuddin Aibak

Qutbuddin Aibak began the construction of the Qutb Minar at Delhi. The monument was subsequently completed and modified by later rulers, particularly Iltutmish.

Aibak also began the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi.

7. Death of Qutbuddin Aibak

Qutbuddin Aibak died in 1210 CE after an accident while playing polo (chaugan).

He was succeeded briefly by Aram Shah, who was later replaced by Iltutmish.

8. Iltutmish

Shamsuddin Iltutmish was the most important ruler in the early phase of the Delhi Sultanate. He ruled approximately from 1211 to 1236 CE.

He consolidated the Sultanate and established Delhi as the principal political center.

9. Importance of Iltutmish

• Consolidated Turkish rule in northern India.
• Defeated several rival claimants.
• Strengthened Delhi as the political center.
• Organized the administrative structure of the Sultanate.
• Strengthened the system of territorial assignments called iqta.
• Received recognition from the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad.

10. Iltutmish and the Abbasid Caliph

In 1229 CE, Iltutmish received a formal recognition or investiture from the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustansir.

This recognition strengthened his legitimacy in the Islamic political world.

11. Iltutmish and the Mongol Threat

During Iltutmish's reign, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan was expanding across Central Asia.

The arrival of the Khwarazmian ruler Jalaluddin Mangburni near India's northwestern frontier created a difficult diplomatic situation.

Iltutmish avoided taking actions that could unnecessarily provoke the Mongols and thus protected the Sultanate from a direct Mongol invasion during his reign.

12. Iltutmish and the Iqta System

The iqta was an important administrative arrangement under the Delhi Sultanate. An official, known as an iqtadar or muqti, was assigned the right to collect revenue from a territory in return for administrative and military responsibilities.

13. Chahalgani or the Group of Forty

Iltutmish organized a group of influential Turkish nobles commonly known as the Chahalgani or "The Forty".

After Iltutmish's death, these nobles became an important political force in determining succession.

14. Razia Sultan

Razia Sultan, daughter of Iltutmish, ruled Delhi from approximately 1236 to 1240 CE.

She was the first and only woman to occupy the throne of the Delhi Sultanate as a sovereign ruler.

Her reign faced opposition from powerful nobles, particularly sections of the Turkish elite.

15. Razia's Administration

Razia attempted to reduce the political dominance of the Turkish nobles and relied on individuals from different social and ethnic backgrounds.

Her political opposition eventually resulted in her removal from power.

16. Razia's Death

Razia was defeated after a series of political conflicts and died in 1240 CE.

Her reign remains significant because it demonstrated the possibility of female political authority within the Sultanate.

17. Nasiruddin Mahmud

Nasiruddin Mahmud ruled from 1246 to 1266 CE.

His reign is particularly associated with his powerful deputy, Ghiyasuddin Balban.

18. Ghiyasuddin Balban

Ghiyasuddin Balban ruled from 1266 to 1287 CE.

He was one of the strongest rulers of the Mamluk Dynasty and emphasized royal authority, discipline and centralized control.

19. Balban's Theory of Kingship

Balban believed that the Sultan should possess great dignity and authority. He emphasized the exalted position of the monarchy.

Persian court traditions and concepts of royal dignity were used to strengthen the authority of the Sultan.

20. Sijda and Paibos

Balban emphasized elaborate court etiquette, including sijda and paibos.

• Sijda: prostration before the Sultan.
• Paibos: kissing the feet of the Sultan.

These practices emphasized the dignity and superiority of royal authority.

21. Balban's Policy of "Blood and Iron"

Balban adopted a strict policy toward rebels, lawlessness and powerful opponents.

His approach is often described in textbooks as the policy of "Blood and Iron", emphasizing strong military action and severe punishment.

22. Balban and the Mongols

The northwestern frontier faced repeated Mongol pressure during Balban's reign.

Balban strengthened frontier defenses and military arrangements. His son Prince Muhammad was killed while fighting the Mongols in 1285 CE.

23. Balban and Internal Security

Balban took strong measures against the Mewatis and other groups considered threats to security around Delhi.

He strengthened roads, military posts and administrative control in troubled regions.

24. End of the Mamluk Dynasty

After Balban's death in 1287 CE, the Sultanate experienced political instability.

In 1290 CE, Jalaluddin Khalji established the Khalji Dynasty, ending the Mamluk period.

25. Khalji Dynasty

The Khalji Dynasty ruled from approximately 1290 to 1320 CE.

Important rulers included:

• Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji
• Alauddin Khalji
• Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah

26. Jalaluddin Khalji

Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji founded the Khalji Dynasty in 1290 CE.

His approach toward rebels and political opponents was generally more conciliatory than that of Alauddin Khalji.

27. Alauddin Khalji

Alauddin Khalji was one of the most powerful rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. He ruled approximately from 1296 to 1316 CE.

His reign is especially important for:

• Expansion of the Sultanate.
• Defence against Mongols.
• Market and price regulations.
• Revenue reforms.
• Military reforms.
• Expansion into the Deccan.

28. Alauddin's Conquests in North India

Alauddin expanded the Sultanate into several regions of northern and western India.

Important campaigns included Gujarat, Ranthambore, Chittor and Malwa.

29. Conquest of Gujarat

Alauddin's forces invaded Gujarat in 1299 CE.

The campaign brought considerable wealth and strategic advantages to the Sultanate.

30. Ranthambore

Alauddin captured Ranthambore in 1301 CE after a major campaign against the Chauhan ruler Hammiradeva.

31. Chittor

Alauddin captured Chittor in 1303 CE.

32. Alauddin Khalji's Deccan Expeditions

Alauddin's southern expansion was largely carried out through his commander Malik Kafur.

Important southern kingdoms targeted included:

• Devagiri
• Warangal
• Dwarasamudra
• Madurai

33. Malik Kafur

Malik Kafur was one of Alauddin Khalji's most important military commanders.

He led several expeditions into the Deccan and south India and brought large amounts of tribute to the Delhi Sultanate.

34. Mongol Invasions during Alauddin Khalji

The Delhi Sultanate faced repeated Mongol invasions during Alauddin's reign.

Alauddin strengthened the army and the defence of Delhi to resist these attacks.

35. Alauddin's Military Reforms

Alauddin maintained a large standing army to protect the Sultanate and support his expansionist policies.

Two important military practices associated with his administration were:

• Dagh: branding of horses.
• Chehra: descriptive roll or record of soldiers.

36. Market Control System

One of Alauddin Khalji's most famous reforms was his system of market and price control.

The objective was to maintain relatively low prices so that the large standing army could be maintained without excessively increasing soldiers' salaries.

37. Alauddin's Market Regulations

Alauddin established regulated markets in Delhi and appointed officials to supervise prices and supplies.

Important commodities were brought under price regulations, and strict penalties were imposed for violations.

38. Revenue Reforms of Alauddin

Alauddin attempted to strengthen direct state control over agricultural revenue in the core areas around Delhi.

The land revenue demand in the Doab was traditionally described in textbooks as approximately half of the agricultural produce.

Revenue collection was more directly supervised, reducing the power of local intermediaries in some areas.

39. Intelligence System under Alauddin

Alauddin maintained an extensive intelligence network to monitor officials, nobles and market conditions.

Spies and reporting officers helped the Sultan maintain central control.

40. Alauddin's Centralization

Alauddin reduced the political influence of powerful nobles by restricting their social gatherings, controlling wealth and maintaining close surveillance.

His administration emphasized the supremacy of the Sultan.

41. End of Khalji Dynasty

After Alauddin Khalji's death in 1316 CE, political instability increased.

In 1320 CE, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded the Tughlaq Dynasty.

42. Tughlaq Dynasty

The Tughlaq Dynasty ruled from approximately 1320 to 1414 CE.

Its major rulers were:

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq
• Firuz Shah Tughlaq

43. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded the Tughlaq Dynasty in 1320 CE.

He attempted to restore political stability after the final phase of Khalji rule.

He founded Tughlaqabad near Delhi.

44. Muhammad bin Tughlaq

Muhammad bin Tughlaq ruled approximately from 1325 to 1351 CE.

He was known for ambitious administrative and political experiments.

His reign is one of the most frequently tested topics in competitive examinations.

45. Transfer of Capital

Muhammad bin Tughlaq ordered the transfer of the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad in the Deccan.

The policy was later reversed, and Delhi again became the principal political center.

46. Token Currency

Muhammad bin Tughlaq introduced a system of token currency, including copper or brass coins intended to circulate at a value similar to silver currency.

The experiment failed largely because unauthorized imitation and counterfeiting became widespread.

47. Taxation in the Doab

Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased taxation in the fertile Ganga-Yamuna Doab.

The timing coincided with difficult agricultural conditions, contributing to serious agrarian distress and rebellion.

48. Agricultural Department

Muhammad bin Tughlaq established a department associated with agricultural development, commonly known as Diwan-i-Kohi.

Its objective was to improve cultivation and agricultural productivity, particularly in the Doab.

49. Muhammad bin Tughlaq's Khurasan Plan

Muhammad bin Tughlaq planned a major military expedition toward Khurasan, but the proposed campaign was abandoned.

50. Qarachil Expedition

Muhammad bin Tughlaq also undertook an expedition toward the Qarachil or Himalayan region.

The expedition faced serious difficulties because of geography and environmental conditions.

51. Rebellions under Muhammad bin Tughlaq

His reign witnessed numerous rebellions and the emergence of independent regional states.

The Sultanate's enormous territorial ambitions proved difficult to administer effectively.

52. Ibn Battuta

The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta visited India during Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign.

He served as a judge in Delhi and later left India as part of a diplomatic mission.

His travel account, the Rihla, provides valuable information about the society, administration and court of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

53. Firuz Shah Tughlaq

Firuz Shah Tughlaq ruled from approximately 1351 to 1388 CE.

His policies were different from those of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. He emphasized public works, irrigation and administrative continuity.

54. Public Works under Firuz Shah

Firuz Shah constructed and repaired canals, roads, gardens, buildings and other public works.

He promoted irrigation by developing canal networks in northern India.

55. Firuz Shah and Ashokan Pillars

Firuz Shah Tughlaq transported and re-erected ancient Ashokan pillars at Delhi.

He brought one pillar from Topra and another from Meerut region to Delhi.

56. Firuz Shah's Administrative Policies

Firuz Shah made several offices and assignments more hereditary and attempted to maintain the support of nobles and religious elites.

His reign was comparatively stable, although these policies also contributed to the weakening of centralized authority in the long term.

57. Timur's Invasion – 1398 CE

In 1398 CE, Timur invaded northern India and attacked Delhi.

His invasion caused enormous destruction and seriously weakened the authority of the Tughlaq dynasty.

58. Decline of the Tughlaq Dynasty

After Firuz Shah Tughlaq's death, political instability increased. Provincial governors and regional powers became increasingly independent.

The Tughlaq dynasty finally gave way to the Sayyid Dynasty in 1414 CE.

59. Sayyid Dynasty

The Sayyid Dynasty ruled Delhi from 1414 to 1451 CE.

Important rulers included:

• Khizr Khan
• Mubarak Shah
• Muhammad Shah
• Alam Shah

60. Khizr Khan

Khizr Khan founded the Sayyid Dynasty in 1414 CE.

He had earlier been associated with the Timurid authority after Timur's invasion.

He did not initially assume the title of Sultan and acknowledged Timurid suzerainty in the early phase.

61. Lodi Dynasty

The Lodi Dynasty was the final dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.

It ruled from 1451 to 1526 CE and was of Afghan origin.

Major rulers were:

• Bahlul Lodi
• Sikandar Lodi
• Ibrahim Lodi

62. Bahlul Lodi

Bahlul Lodi founded the Lodi Dynasty in 1451 CE.

He expanded the Sultanate and incorporated several Afghan nobles into the political structure.

63. Sikandar Lodi

Sikandar Lodi ruled from 1489 to 1517 CE.

He strengthened the administration and expanded Lodi influence.

He founded the city of Agra in 1504 CE and used it as an important political center.

64. Ibrahim Lodi

Ibrahim Lodi was the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate.

His attempts to strengthen royal authority brought him into conflict with powerful Afghan nobles.

These political tensions contributed to the circumstances that led to Babur's invasion.

65. First Battle of Panipat – 1526

The First Battle of Panipat was fought in 1526 CE between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi.

Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi and established Mughal political authority in northern India.

66. Administration of the Delhi Sultanate

The Sultan was the central political authority. The Sultanate developed a system of central administration involving several important offices.

67. Provincial Administration

The Sultanate was divided into provinces or territorial units whose organization changed over time.

Governors and muqtis/iqtadars were responsible for revenue collection, administration and military obligations in assigned territories.

68. Iqta System

The iqta system became an important part of the Sultanate's administrative and military structure.

The state assigned revenue rights from a territory to an official. The official was expected to maintain troops and perform administrative duties.

69. Revenue System

Agriculture was the main source of state revenue.

Land revenue was collected through different arrangements, and the exact system varied among rulers and regions.

Alauddin Khalji's revenue reforms in the Doab represented an important attempt to increase direct state control over agricultural resources.

70. Military System

The Sultanate depended heavily on cavalry and military commanders.

Important military elements included:

• Horsemen
• Infantry
• Elephants
• Fortifications
• Mounted archery

71. Society under the Delhi Sultanate

Sultanate society was diverse and included Turkish, Afghan, Persian, Indian Muslim and Hindu communities, among others.

Social structure varied significantly across regions, occupations and religious communities.

72. Religious Policy

The religious policy of the Delhi Sultans was not uniform. It varied according to the ruler, political circumstances and region.

Muslim religious scholars, known as ulema, held an important position in the political and social structure, but the actual relationship between political authority and religious institutions differed from one ruler to another.

73. Sufi Movement

Sufism became an important feature of medieval Indian society.

The Chishti and Suhrawardi orders were particularly influential.

Major Sufi figures included Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti, Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki and Nizamuddin Auliya.

74. Bhakti Movement

The medieval period also witnessed the growth of various Bhakti traditions.

Bhakti emphasized devotion to a personal deity and developed in diverse regional and philosophical forms.

75. Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate witnessed the development of new architectural forms through interaction between Indian building traditions and Islamic architectural techniques.

Important features included arches, domes, minarets, large gateways and decorated stonework.

76. Major Architectural Monuments

77. Literature during the Sultanate

Persian became an important language of administration and elite literary culture.

Important writers included:

• Amir Khusrau
• Ziauddin Barani
• Minhaj-us-Siraj
• Isami

78. Amir Khusrau

Amir Khusrau was one of the most famous literary figures of the Delhi Sultanate.

He wrote in Persian and was associated with several Delhi Sultans. He is also closely associated with the Chishti Sufi tradition through his relationship with Nizamuddin Auliya.

Important works include Khazain-ul-Futuh and Tughlaqnama.

79. Ziauddin Barani

Ziauddin Barani was an important historian and political thinker of the Sultanate period.

His major works include:

• Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi
• Fatawa-i-Jahandari

80. Minhaj-us-Siraj

Minhaj-us-Siraj Juzjani wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, an important source for the history of the early Delhi Sultanate.

81. Ibn Battuta's Account

Ibn Battuta's Rihla is a valuable source for understanding 14th-century India.

It provides information about Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, administration, trade, roads, cities and social life.

82. Economy under the Delhi Sultanate

Agriculture remained the foundation of the economy.

Trade, handicrafts, textiles, metalworking and urban markets also expanded in many regions.

Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Lakhnauti and other cities became important commercial centers at different times.

83. Urbanization

The Delhi Sultanate period witnessed the growth of urban centers connected with administration, trade, crafts and military activity.

Delhi developed into one of the most important political and urban centers of medieval India.

84. Technology and Transport

The period witnessed developments and wider use of technologies related to irrigation, construction, textile production and military equipment.

The expansion of trade routes also improved connections between different regions.

85. Position of Women

Women's status varied across social groups and regions. Elite women could sometimes exercise political influence.

Razia Sultan is the most prominent example of a woman who directly exercised sovereign political authority in the Delhi Sultanate.

86. Delhi Sultanate and Bihar

Bihar became an important region during the expansion of Turkish power in eastern India.

The campaigns of Bakhtiyar Khalji established Turkish political influence in Bihar and created a base for the conquest of Bengal.

87. Bihar and Bengal

The conquest of Bihar was followed by the expansion of Turkish authority into Bengal.

The Sena ruler Lakshmanasena lost control of Nadia, while Sena authority continued in parts of eastern Bengal for some time.

88. Causes of the Expansion of the Sultanate

• Strong military organization.
• Efficient use of cavalry.
• Strategic importance of Delhi and Punjab.
• Political divisions among regional rulers.
• Expansion of administrative institutions.
• Revenue resources of conquered territories.

89. Causes of the Decline of the Delhi Sultanate

• Weak rulers after strong monarchs.
• Succession disputes.
• Provincial rebellions.
• Rise of independent regional kingdoms.
• Conflict among nobles.
• Financial and administrative difficulties.
• Timur's invasion of 1398.
• Weakness of the later Sayyids and Lodis.
• Babur's successful invasion in 1526.

90. Regional States during the Sultanate

As central authority weakened, several regional states became increasingly independent.

• Bengal
• Gujarat
• Malwa
• Jaunpur
• Bahmani Kingdom
• Mewar
• Vijayanagara

91. Jaunpur Sultanate

The Jaunpur Sultanate emerged in eastern Uttar Pradesh during the period of weakening Delhi authority.

It became an important center of Islamic learning, architecture and regional political power.

The rulers of Jaunpur are often called the Sharqi rulers.

92. Bengal Sultanate

Bengal developed considerable political autonomy from Delhi during the later Sultanate period.

Lakhnauti and later other centers served as important political and commercial centers.

93. Bahmani Kingdom

The Bahmani Kingdom was established in the Deccan in 1347 CE by Alauddin Hasan Bahman Shah, also known as Hasan Gangu.

Its rise reflected the weakening of Delhi's control over the Deccan.

94. Vijayanagara Empire

The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 CE by Harihara and Bukka.

It became one of the major powers of southern India during the period of the Delhi Sultanate.

95. Important Dynasties: Quick Comparison

96. Important Rulers at a Glance

97. Important Battles and Events

98. BPSC Important MCQs

99. One-Line Revision

100. Quick Revision Table

101. BPSC Exam Focus

102. Bihar Special for BPSC

Bihar occupies an important position in the history of the early expansion of Turkish power in eastern India.

The campaigns of Bakhtiyar Khalji in Bihar and Bengal connected the history of the Delhi-centered Turkish state with the political transformation of eastern India.

103. Important Sources for the Delhi Sultanate

104. Final Conclusion

The Delhi Sultanate represents a major phase in the political, economic, administrative and cultural history of medieval India. From the establishment of Turkish authority under Qutbuddin Aibak to the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi by Babur in 1526, the Sultanate passed through several phases of expansion, consolidation, experimentation and regional fragmentation.

The most important themes for BPSC are the five dynasties, major rulers, Iqta system, Balban's theory of kingship, Alauddin Khalji's market reforms, Muhammad bin Tughlaq's experiments, Firuz Shah's public works, Timur's invasion, Lodi rule, Bihar-Bengal expansion and the First Battle of Panipat.